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Charles Darwin, M.A.,
Fellow of the Royal, Geological, Linnaan, etc. societies; Author of Journal
of researches during H. M. S. Beagle's Voyage round the world. London: John Murray,
Albemarle Street, 1859
Slow process of change from one form to another, as in the evolution of the
universe from its formation in the Big Bang to its present state, or in the
evolution of life on Earth. Some Christians and Muslims deny the theory of evolution
as conflicting with the belief that God created all things. English naturalist
Charles Darwin assigned the main role in evolutionary change to natural selection
acting on randomly occurring variations (now known to be produced by spontaneous
changes or mutations in the genetic material of organisms).
Organic evolution traces the development of simple unicellular forms to more
complex forms, ultimately to the flowering plants and vertebrate animals, including
man. The Earth contains an immense diversity of living organisms: about a million
different species of animals and half a million species of plants have so far
been described. There is overwhelming evidence that this vast array arose by
a gradual process of evolutionary divergence and not by individual acts of divine
creation as described in the Book of Genesis. There are several lines of evidence:
the fossil record, the existence of similarities or homologies between different
groups of organisms, embryology, and geographical distribution.
The idea of continuous evolution in the living world can be traced as far back
as Lucretius in the 1st century BC, but it did not gain wide acceptance until
the 19th century, following the work of Scottish geologist Charles Lyell, French
naturalist Jean Baptiste Lamarck, English naturalist Charles Darwin, and English
biologist Thomas Henry Huxley. Darwin assigned the major role in evolutionary
change to natural selection acting on randomly occurring variations. Natural
selection occurs because those individuals better adapted to their particular
environments reproduce more effectively, thus contributing their characteristics
to future generations. The current theory of evolution, called neo-Darwinism
, combines Darwin's theory with Austrian biologist Gregor Mendel's theories
on genetics and Hugo de Vries's discovery of genetic mutation. Although neither
the general concept of evolution nor the importance of natural selection is
doubted by the vast majority of biologists, there remains dispute over other
possible processes involved in evolutionary change. Besides natural selection
and sexual selection , chance may play a large part in deciding which genes
become characteristic of a population, a phenomenon called `genetic drift'.
It is now also clear that evolutionary change does not always occur at a constant
rate, but that the process can have long periods of relative stability interspersed
with periods of rapid change. This has led to new theories, such as punctuated
equilibrium model . See also adaptive radiation .
Although the broad outlines of the evolutionary sequence are known, much research
is still necessary to fill in the details and to discover the mechanisms of
evolutionary change. Evolution depends on the presence of heritable variations
in a population which confer a selective advantage on the individuals displaying
them. The phrase `survival of the fittest' is misleading since it implies the
death of the `unfit' individuals. From an evolutionary point of view, fertility
is much more important than survival since if one type regularly leaves more
offspring than another, the frequency of the more fertile type in the population
is bound to increase. Fertility depends on many things including general vigor,
the length of the reproductive period and the ability to mate successfully.
Heritable changes arise from genetic mutations which occur spontaneously in
all organisms. Many investigations, which are currently being made into the
genetic structures of living plant and animal populations, show the relative
importance of mutations and isolation in the origin of new species. It is believed
that the processes now occurring on a very small scale are the same as those
which have caused the evolution of the major groups over a vast period of geological
time. These studies will therefore throw light on the mechanism of evolution.
Evolution is a diagram by Charles Darwin of Galapagos finches, drawn during
the voyage of the Beagle. On the Galapagos Islands, Darwin found a colony of
finches that contained at least 14 distinct species, none of which existed on
the continental mainland. He proposed that, in the isolated environment of the
islands, the finches had evolved over many generations and were embroiled in
a `survival of the fittest'.