The characteristics of Transitive Verbs:

John cut the bread. t6s14sn
* John cut.
John cut the bread, the cheese.

cut < AGENT, PATIENT >

surprise1 < THEME, EXPERIENCER >

The news surprised Mary. Mary loves cats.
John surprised Mary. surprise 2 < AGENT, EXPERIENCER > love < EXPERIENCER, PATIENT >

The museum acquired a new painting. That bomb destroyed the city.

acquire < BENEFICIARY, PATIENT > destroy < INSTRUMENT, PATIENT >

Transitive verbs express human activities or events in which humans usually play the agent role. The main characteristic of transitive verbs is that they take a direct object. The direct object is an obligatory constituent and must appear immediately after the verb.
Transitive verbs are usually associated with two thematic roles: AGENT and PATIENT. However, they are certain transitive verbs which have a different thematic grid (they do not have the roles AGENT and PATIENT). Thus, transitive verbs that express an emotional state (surprise and love) take an EXPERIENCER, either in object position (surprise) or in subject position (love).
Transitive verbs are of two types: - Simple , depending on the number of constituents with
- Complex
which they associate.

Simple Transitive Verbs are of two types: monotransitive (when they take a direct object) and ditransitive (when they take a direct object and an indirect object)

a) Monotransitive verbs

They built a shelter.
He opened the door.

From a semantic point of view, the DO of Simple Transitive Verbs can be affected by the action denoted by the verb (the door) or effected, when it denotes the result of the action (shelter).

Verbs with affected objects:

to built (a house) to cook (dinner) to compose (music) to draw ( a painting) to erect (a monument) to make (a toy) to manufacture (food) to write (a novel, a poem)

There is a special type of effected object known as cognate object which repeats the form of the verb. to smile (a smile) to live (a life) to dream (a dream) to slap (a sleep)

A small number of monotransitives with a a+ concrete direct objecti denote the use of an instrument for a certain activity.

They used electricity for heating. They used terrorism to frighten people.
wind power blackmail force

They manipulated people to achieve power. an event

With the verbs: to use, to manipulate, etc, the direct object has the thematic role of INSTRUMENT.

A number of monotranitive verbs take an inanimate D.O.:

to accept a gift a+ concretei to analyse a substance a+ concretei an idea a+ abstracti a cause a+ abstracti

to examine a paper a+ concretei to reflect the light or one’s opinion a theory a+ abstracti to deny a signature or a proposal

Which such verbs the DO can be either a concrete noun or an abstract noun; both being inanimate.
Certain monotransitive verbs ban be followed either by a a+ abstracti D.O. or by a clause which function as a D.O.

I believe the story. They learnt the theory.
I believe athat they are good students.i They learnt athat they have to be careful.i

Similar verbs are : to admit, to announce, to assume, to believe, to consider, to declare, to expect, to imagine, to bear, to propose, to suppose, to suggest, to think.
So far, monotransitive verbs have been discussed in relation with the type of D.O. that they take.
From a semantic point of view, many monotransitive verbs have a causative meaning.

CAUSATIVE VERBS - Periphrastic
- Lexical
- Morphological

1. Periphrastic
In English the verbs which express the causation of an event are: to cause, to determine, to have, to make, to set.

CAUSER
The war caused great human loses. -; effected object

The computerisation of industry determined unemployment.
(caused) D.O. effected

I will have the gardener plant some trees.
(order him)

I will get my hair cut. (to ask somebody else to perform the action)

Causation implies 2 thematic roles: a causer and an effected resulting entity.
They all express causation.
Periphrastic causative verbs express causation in a direct manner.

2. Lexical causative verbs
Lexical causative verb are transitive verbs that can be paraphrased by means of the verb “cause”.
Brutus killed Caesar. = Brutus caused Caesar to die. monotransitive periphrastic

Lexical causative verbs

to convince smb. = to cause smb. to believe
(lexical)

to teach = to cause smb. to learn
(lexical)

to remind = to cause smb. to remember
(lexical)

to put = to cause smth. to be in a certain place to give = to cause smb. to have smth.

to entertain = to cause smb. to have fun

to send = to cause smb. to receive smth.

3. Morphological causative verbs
A great number of causative transitive verbs are derived from adjectives or nouns; the word-formation process may be: 1) CONVERSION and 2) AFFIXATION

1) CONVERSION

Adjectives Causative transitive verbs

better - to better = “to cause smth. to improve” clean - to clean = “to cause smth. to be clean” clear - to clear = “to cause smth. to be clean” empty - to empty = “to cause smth. to become empty” dry - to dry free - to free calm - to calm

2) AFFIXATION - a) Prefixation : dis- ; en-
- b) Suffixation : -ify ; -ize ; -en

a) Prefixation

Adjectives Causative transitive verbs

able - to disable quiet - to disquiet large - to enlarge = “to cause smth. to become large” rich - to enrich sure - to ensure ca

These causative verbs are obtained by attaching prefixes to adjectives.

b) Suffixation

Adjectives Causative transitive verbs

ample - to amplify = “to cause smth. to become larger” solid - to solidify pretty - to prettify civil - to civilize commercial - to commercialize fertile - to fertilize legal - to legalize popular - to popularize
American - to americanize short - to shorten
white - to whiten
wide - to widen black - to blacken broad - to broaden dark - to darken mad - to madden = “to cause smb. to become mad”


Similar causative transitive verbs can be obtained from nouns by means of the same word formation processes.

1) Conversion

Nouns Causative verbs

age - to age decay - to decay heat - to heat plant - to plant

2) Affixation

Prefixation : de- ; dis- ; en-

Nouns Verbs

form - to deform frost - to defrost throne - to dethrone forest - to deforest colour - to discolour courage - to discourage credit - to discredit figure - to disfigure illusion - to disillusion order - to disorder place - to displace pleasure - to displeasure cage - to encage circle - to encircle code - to encode courage - to encourage title - to entitle

Suffixation: -en ; -ify ; ize

Nouns Verbs heart - to hearten strength - to strengthen height - to heighten = “to cause smth. to be on a high level” beauty - to beautify = “to cause smth. to become beautiful” person - to personify carbon - to carbonize computer - to computerize ideal - to idealize robot - to robotize

Sometimes, both prefixation and suffixation are used to produce causative verbs.
Adjective “vital” uses the prefix and the suffix to produce causative verbs: to devitalize active - deactivate mobile - demobilize moral - demoralize
Nouns: light - enlighten limit - delimitate

b) Ditransitive verbs

John gave aa booki a to Mary.i -; obligatory tr. D.O. I.obj.

John gave aMaryi aa book.i
Sn tr.vb. I.obj. D.O.

The second construction is called double object construction.
Ditransitive verbs are three places predicates, that is, they always appear with: a subject, a direct object and an indirect object. The position of the objects is variable.
The indirect object can appear with the preposition “to” (to Mary), in which case the construction is called an Oblique Object Construction. (the term “oblique” indicates that the object has a preposition). But the indirect object can also appear without a preposition when it appears immediately (adjacent) after the verb in the construction known as Double Object Construction.

She sent a gift ato her mother.i - Oblique Object Construction
I.obj.
She sent aher motheri a gift. - Double Object Construction
I.obj.

Certain ditransitive verbs can only appear in the Oblique Object Construction.

She explained the theory to the students.
He described the landscape to his friend.
* He described his friend the landscape.

There are several ditransitives which can only appear in the Double Object Construction: to save and to envy

She envied Mary her dress. - Double Object Construction
He spared John the effort. - - " - " - "

Complex Transitive Verbs take in addition to a D.O. another constituent which can function as a prepositional object, an adverbial modifier of various types or a predicative.

They blamed John for his failure. Sn + Vb + D.O. + Prep.obj.
Sn D.O. Prep.obj.

They reminded Mary of her guilty. tr. D.O. Prep.obj.

They warned John of / about danger. tr. D.O. Prep.obj.

In English there are many transitive verbs which take a D.O. and a prepositional object. Semantically, these verbs express inter human relationships.

- to accuse smb. of smth.
- to acquaint smb. with smth.
- to advice smb. of / about smth.
- to blame smb. for smth.
- to congratulate smb. on / for smth.
- to discourage smb. from smth.
- to instruct smb. in smth.
- to persuade smb. of smth.
- to remind smb. of smth.
- to thank smb. of smth.

- adverbial modifier

She removed the dishes from the plate. tr. D.O. Adv.modifier of place = ccl

She laid a blanket over a sleeping child. tr. D.O. Adv. modifier of place = ccl

Certain transitive verbs indicate a change of position caused by an agent that is why such verbs can co-occur with an adverbial modifier of place.

He wiped the surface clean. -; the surface is clean tr. D.O. Object Complement
He painted the door white. tr. D.O. predicative / obj. compl.

He drank himself silly. tr. D.O. predicative / obj. compl

They elected him chairman. tr. D.O. predicative / obj. compl

Transitive verbs belonging to this class take an affected object, followed by a predicative which describes the object. In traditional grammars this predicative is also called object complement. (describes the object)